{ "schema_version": "1.0", "description": "Selected source-backed records; review status describes the recorded checks, not independent human expert validation.", "records": [ { "id": "school-california", "title": "A California school report in a Jackson newspaper", "date": "1885-01-21", "date_label": "21 January 1885", "type": "Newspaper report", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "The Clarion (Jackson, Mississippi)", "lccn": "sn83016925", "page": 1, "citation": "The Clarion (Jackson, Mississippi), 21 January 1885, page 1, Gleanings column, paragraph beginning ‘There are 1,500 Chinese children’. Library of Congress, Chronicling America.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83016925/1885-01-21/ed-1/?sp=1", "excerpt": "The State Superintendent of Public Schools in California has just declared ‘that Chinese children cannot become pupils of public schools, public education being intended under the Constitution of the State only for those who can become citizens.’", "transcription_note": "Bounded sentence transcribed from the source image. Line breaks and end-of-line hyphenation joined; quotation marks normalized. The preceding sentence’s number and religious characterization are not adopted as exhibit facts.", "interpretation": "The newspaper attributes a school-exclusion statement to California’s superintendent. Publication in Jackson does not make the reported school action a Mississippi event.", "limit": "This establishes what the newspaper reported, not the legal correctness of its assertion or an independently verified action by the superintendent. It does not describe schooling in Mississippi.", "image": "source-images/landscape/school-california.jpg", "region": [ 0.838, 0.668, 0.948, 0.709 ], "image_size": [ 4000, 5317 ], "review": "single_ai_image_review_2026_09_12", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "rights_basis": "1885 US newspaper; saved item metadata states that newspapers published more than 95 years ago are in the public domain in their entirety.", "evidence_status": "Attributed newspaper report", "evidence": [ "The State Superintendent of Public Schools in California", "Chinese children cannot become pupils of public schools" ], "source_sha256": "bb46ad1c233267882d5b728f783047b2895b7931ac13ab95be9ff555fd71c34a", "transcription_sha256": "9b2f7f55c6801153ea68579a418c0ff1c83204bb257723dc14e166d754e8af96", "metadata_sha256": "316b50d599cde63822738f601d93ee6034cea4de4a597c051bc5ff3ab145df6e", "image_kind": "archive_page", "image_sha256": "bb46ad1c233267882d5b728f783047b2895b7931ac13ab95be9ff555fd71c34a" }, { "id": "AD-sam-lee", "title": "Sam Lee advertises laundry services", "date": "1898-08-04", "date_label": "1898-08-04", "type": "Advertisement", "topic": "Businesses", "publication": "Greenwood, Mississippi", "citation": "Greenwood newspaper advertisement, 1898-08-04; page identified by the source link.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn89065008/1898-08-04/ed-1/?sp=5", "excerpt": "SAM LEE'S CHINESE LAUNDRY\nCan do your work equal to that done at Birmingham and St. Louis.\nPrices Same. Work Guaranteed.\nDrummers' work sent in in the morning returned same day.\nLaundry near Postoffice.", "interpretation": "An advertisement in Greenwood presents services under the name Sam Lee.", "limit": "A selected advertisement, not a business census or a complete biography. Repeated insertions and cross-record identities are not independently validated here.", "image": null, "review": "image_review_recorded_in_prior_site", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "bcddcdc9fc5b337c56aa3e72e2675a57f65b764160af97a1caa12836fa50f754", "evidence_status": "Advertising statement", "evidence": [ "SAM LEE'S CHINESE LAUNDRY" ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "farmer-0", "title": "Farmer account in Hattiesburg Daily Progress", "date": "1903-11-03", "date_label": "1903-11-03", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "Hattiesburg Daily Progress (Hattiesburg)", "citation": "Hattiesburg Daily Progress (Hattiesburg, Mississippi), 1903-11-03, edition 1, image 1. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn87065165/1903-11-03/ed-1/?sp=1", "excerpt": "Claiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almon-eyed celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the orient. Thomas has been quite sucessful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug account in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almon-eyed celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-0-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "29a0e3977c703fbd53cca9ad44cc32cad804368aa4826fb8d5d5581e903b2131", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "15f37b9948fc027a6ffed767e2c49e968f364c47f2248dfb61353e28602452d5", "town": "Hattiesburg", "lccn": "sn87065165", "page_sequence": 1 }, { "id": "farmer-1", "title": "Farmer account in The Progress-Advertiser", "date": "1903-11-12", "date_label": "1903-11-12", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "The Progress-Advertiser (Lexington)", "citation": "The Progress-Advertiser (Lexington, Mississippi), 1903-11-12, edition 1, image 10. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn87065338/1903-11-12/ed-1/?sp=10", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-1-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "a980cd900574ca9754be572a618a4a1121136761f11988d336ff616df1a9ddd5", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Lexington", "lccn": "sn87065338", "page_sequence": 10 }, { "id": "farmer-2", "title": "Farmer account in Oxford Eagle", "date": "1903-11-12", "date_label": "1903-11-12", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "Oxford Eagle (Oxford)", "citation": "Oxford Eagle (Oxford, Mississippi), 1903-11-12, edition 1, image 1. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn87065469/1903-11-12/ed-1/?sp=1", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-2-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "a8893164a1c1a45f871bae28eb3882135263b72e7ed6aae689764a8215e8a2a6", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Oxford", "lccn": "sn87065469", "page_sequence": 1 }, { "id": "farmer-3", "title": "Farmer account in The Tupelo Journal", "date": "1903-11-13", "date_label": "1903-11-13", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "The Tupelo Journal (Tupelo)", "citation": "The Tupelo Journal (Tupelo, Mississippi), 1903-11-13, edition 1, image 2. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn87065632/1903-11-13/ed-1/?sp=2", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-3-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "5f1739fe89bd2e41e8eeea0bb864fb0a0ba9ef31a35f355595b5b4049cd7ef11", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Tupelo", "lccn": "sn87065632", "page_sequence": 2 }, { "id": "farmer-4", "title": "Farmer account in The Canton Times", "date": "1903-11-13", "date_label": "1903-11-13", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "The Canton Times (Canton)", "citation": "The Canton Times (Canton, Mississippi), 1903-11-13, edition 1, image 3. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86074075/1903-11-13/ed-1/?sp=3", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-4-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "31b2012dc71da2c800464366f07d8515d9300a0c922a2a5bbd17d386e027afa3", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Canton", "lccn": "sn86074075", "page_sequence": 3 }, { "id": "farmer-5", "title": "Farmer account in Macon Beacon", "date": "1903-11-14", "date_label": "1903-11-14", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "Macon Beacon (Macon)", "citation": "Macon Beacon (Macon, Mississippi), 1903-11-14, edition 1, image 1. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83016943/1903-11-14/ed-1/?sp=1", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-5-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "b0e7fde970195cde069ef2982d784ee3d62e6bc8edd3e3932878cef66af16220", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Macon", "lccn": "sn83016943", "page_sequence": 1 }, { "id": "farmer-6", "title": "Farmer account in The Leader", "date": "1903-11-14", "date_label": "1903-11-14", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "The Leader (Brookhaven)", "citation": "The Leader (Brookhaven, Mississippi), 1903-11-14, edition 1, image 2. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86074063/1903-11-14/ed-1/?sp=2", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-6-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "3220d8beedc08dd9e3709cc6c90933d97ac4a0def4c2e7419003d25d314dbdb4", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Brookhaven", "lccn": "sn86074063", "page_sequence": 2 }, { "id": "farmer-7", "title": "Farmer account in The Scranton Chronicle", "date": "1903-11-14", "date_label": "1903-11-14", "type": "Newspaper account", "topic": "Farming", "publication": "The Scranton Chronicle (Scranton)", "citation": "The Scranton Chronicle (Scranton, Mississippi), 1903-11-14, edition 1, image 1. Library of Congress, Chronicling America; Mississippi Department of Archives and History.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn87065600/1903-11-14/ed-1/?sp=1", "excerpt": "A Chinese Farmer.\n\nClaiborne county has the honor of claiming the only Chinese farmer in Mississippi. His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient. Thomas has been quite successful, and within the past few years has accumulated a snug amount in the savings bank.", "evidence": [ "His name is Quong Thomas, and the almond-eyed Celestial runs a farm of 100 acres near Port Gibson, where he cultivates a fine variety of cotton, all of which is shipped to the Orient." ], "evidence_status": "Newspaper assertion", "interpretation": "One of eight inspected printings of the same account about a farmer near Port Gibson.", "limit": "A newspaper assertion, not an independently established biography. Eight printings are not eight independent accounts.", "image": "source-images/circulation/farmer-7-crop.jpg", "image_kind": "hand_crop", "image_sha256": "c5751896619effbcb29009490028310e9b872c3e9e59f61ff9e1bd7cf590edab", "review": "AI image review · no human validation", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "fa788b4226370359e3b30547a23d3f2ffddb82350736d7fda6b4f16ebb50b4f1", "town": "Scranton", "lccn": "sn87065600", "page_sequence": 1 }, { "id": "AD-hop-long", "title": "Hop Long advertises laundry services", "date": "1908-04-25", "date_label": "1908-04-25", "type": "Advertisement", "topic": "Businesses", "publication": "Grenada, Mississippi", "citation": "Grenada newspaper advertisement, 1908-04-25; page identified by the source link.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn85034375/1908-04-25/ed-1/?sp=15", "excerpt": "HOP LONG CHINESE LAUNDRY\nWill do nothing but FIRST CLASS WORK\nAll work now in the laundry will be completed and returned to owners.\nGive us a trial.\nOn Depot Street Next Door to McDaniel's Barber Shop. Phone 198.", "transcription_correction": "Corrected 12 September 2026 from a native-resolution Library of Congress crop (AI image review): the earlier reading omitted “CHINESE LAUNDRY” beside the name, “Barber” and “Phone 198.” The insertion code “4-18-4t” is not transcribed.", "interpretation": "An advertisement in Grenada presents services under the name Hop Long.", "limit": "A selected advertisement, not a business census or a complete biography. Repeated insertions and cross-record identities are not independently validated here.", "image": null, "review": "image_review_recorded_in_prior_site", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "3d54edad694da99e6fd581fc2f502ad2c6479a677f777e30bb7ce4d8467e32f1", "evidence_status": "Advertising statement", "evidence": [ "HOP LONG", "Will do nothing but FIRST CLASS WORK", "On Depot Street Next Door to McDaniel's Barber Shop. Phone 198." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "AD-sam-lum", "title": "Sam Lum advertises laundry services", "date": "1912-09-27", "date_label": "1912-09-27", "type": "Advertisement", "topic": "Businesses", "publication": "Macon, Mississippi", "citation": "Macon newspaper advertisement, 1912-09-27; page identified by the source link.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn83016943/1912-09-27/ed-1/?sp=4", "excerpt": "SAM LUM\nChinese Hand Laundry\nOpposite Court House.\nDoes all kinds of Laundry work and guarantees work to be as goods as Steam Laundry.\nShirts; each 10cts, Collars 1 1-2cts, Two Collars 5cts.\nA Share of Your Patronage Solicited.", "interpretation": "An advertisement in Macon presents services under the name Sam Lum.", "limit": "A selected advertisement, not a business census or a complete biography. Repeated insertions and cross-record identities are not independently validated here.", "image": null, "review": "image_review_recorded_in_prior_site", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "c39fb4bd735e067cf9a3f9a9125961f937008b23adf66bda61fa9c648fc2d03d", "evidence_status": "Advertising statement", "evidence": [ "SAM LUM", "Opposite Court House.", "Shirts; each 10cts, Collars 1 1-2cts, Two Collars 5cts." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "AD-charlie-lee", "title": "Charlie Lee advertises laundry services", "date": "1912-12-08", "date_label": "1912-12-08", "type": "Advertisement", "topic": "Businesses", "publication": "Columbus, Mississippi", "citation": "Columbus newspaper advertisement, 1912-12-08; page identified by the source link.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn87065028/1912-12-08/ed-1/?sp=10", "excerpt": "CHARLIE LEE\nChinese Hand Laundry\n119 North Market Street\nLOW PRICES\nShirts, plain bosom 6c; stiff bosom 8c; Collars 1c; Cuffs, per pair 2c; Undershirts 4c; Drawers, pair 4c; Handkerchiefs 1c; Vests 15c; Socks, pair 2c.", "interpretation": "An advertisement in Columbus presents services under the name Charlie Lee.", "limit": "A selected advertisement, not a business census or a complete biography. Repeated insertions and cross-record identities are not independently validated here.", "image": null, "review": "image_review_recorded_in_prior_site", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "d89f3de563d41f2a15a77fe0873d7b4dc7fa0881bbc91b32d6c8887194d60c41", "evidence_status": "Advertising statement", "evidence": [ "CHARLIE LEE", "119 North Market Street", "Shirts, plain bosom 6c; stiff bosom 8c" ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "AD-geo-wong", "title": "Geo Wong advertises laundry services", "date": "1913-05-22", "date_label": "1913-05-22", "type": "Advertisement", "topic": "Businesses", "publication": "Port Gibson, Mississippi", "citation": "Port Gibson newspaper advertisement, 1913-05-22; page identified by the source link.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn86090233/1913-05-22/ed-1/?sp=4", "excerpt": "GEO. WONG'S\nChinese Laundry\nH. FRISHMAN BLOCK\nON MAIN STREET\nPort Gibson, Mississippi", "interpretation": "An advertisement in Port Gibson presents services under the name Geo Wong.", "limit": "A selected advertisement, not a business census or a complete biography. Repeated insertions and cross-record identities are not independently validated here.", "image": null, "review": "image_review_recorded_in_prior_site", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "20eb6a94cdee30d3c6d74199d900e2224b6dabcea0d783816275c9cca6b07deb", "evidence_status": "Advertising statement", "evidence": [ "GEO. WONG'S", "H. FRISHMAN BLOCK" ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-017", "title": "Dundee Man First Tri-State Chinese Union President", "date": "1920-08-03", "date_label": "1920-08-03", "type": "Community organization", "topic": "Associations", "publication": "The News Scimitar (Memphis, Tennessee)", "citation": "The News Scimitar (Memphis, Tennessee), 3 August 1920, fourth edition, p. 1, ‘Dundee Man First Tri-State Chinese Union President.’", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn98069867/1920-08-03/ed-1/?sp=1", "excerpt": "The Tri-State Chinese Merchants association was formally organized. Joe Monton, Dundee, Miss., was named as the first president.", "interpretation": "Records a formal merchant association and a named Mississippi president.", "limit": "A charter, incorporation, governance records, membership roster, finances, later continuity, legal sponsorship, or any school-related action.", "image": null, "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "16ea65f0e736b6198ec59e081443465830719eb81b22e3a1d438c68e9fc35cd3", "evidence_status": "Documented source statement", "evidence": [ "The Tri-State Chinese Merchants association was formally organized. Joe Monton, Dundee, Miss., was named as the first president." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-016", "title": "The segregated school framework", "date": "1922", "date_label": "1922", "type": "School law", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Wikimedia Commons mirror of an Internet Archive / California Digital Library scan", "citation": "Mississippi. School Laws of the State of Mississippi. Compiled by W. F. Bond, State Superintendent of Education. Jackson: The Issue Print, 1922.", "url": "https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:School_laws_of_the_state_of_Mississippi_(IA_schoollawsofst1922missrich).pdf", "excerpt": "Separate schools shall be maintained for children of the white and colored races.", "interpretation": "The 1922 school-law compilation printed the constitutional requirement for separate white and colored schools.", "limit": "The statute supplies legal context; it does not show how a particular district acted.", "image": null, "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "72efac63f3dcc702ff5040442b7c4e2ba076cd50b5bbefade42670931d54f000", "evidence_status": "Statutory text", "evidence": [ "Separate schools shall be maintained for children of the white and colored races." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-012", "title": "Committee Appointed", "date": "1924-03-05", "date_label": "1924-03-05", "type": "School access", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.)", "citation": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.), 5 March 1924, p. 5, ‘Committee Appointed,’ within ‘Women Entertains Zone Rally for Regular Meeting.’", "url": "https://cplclarksdale.advantage-preservation.com/viewer/?i=f&d=01011920-12311935&e=chinese%20children&ord=e1&fn=clarksdale_daily_register_usa_mississippi_clarksdale_19240305_english_5&df=1&dt=8", "excerpt": "A committee to investigate the situation concerning the education of Chinese children in this community was appointed.", "interpretation": "Records that a committee was appointed to investigate the education of Chinese children. The item appears inside a report of a church meeting, which is where its setting comes from; the printed sentence does not say what the committee proposed or what came of it.", "limit": "An original county-superintendent, school-board, or district record; any administrative response or completed school project.", "image": null, "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "e5abd3667ca0798ee42275403fe19eebfca1f4745c3fef11e171f367c48761ae", "evidence_status": "Documented source statement", "evidence": [ "A committee to investigate the situation concerning the education of Chinese children in this community was appointed." ], "open_questions": [ "Whether a separate school was proposed is not in the transcribed sentence. The surrounding column was not transcribed, and no further excerpt is bound to this record." ], "review_priority": "An earlier interpretation read a church and a separate school into a one-sentence excerpt. The narrower wording stands until a bound excerpt from the surrounding column supports more.", "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-010", "title": "Bolivar Circuit Court petition, demurrer, and judgment", "date": "1924-09-29", "date_label": "1924-09-29/1924-11-05", "type": "Filed petition", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "NARA RG 267", "citation": "NARA RG 267, Case File 31534, digital objects 010, 013, 015–017", "url": "https://catalog.archives.gov/id/640875633", "excerpt": "That an order had been issued by the Board of Trustees [...] excluding her from attending said school, solely on the ground and for the reason that she was of Chinese descent", "interpretation": "The petition alleged that Martha Lum was excluded from school in Rosedale because of her Chinese descent.", "limit": "Independent proof of the alleged board order or W. F. Bond instruction.", "image": "source-images/lum-petition-1924.jpg", "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "cd1531e38acea5e94476f566a19713667cdbe9bb54ee8a5db16badb5fcf1dff4", "evidence_status": "Reported allegation", "evidence": [ "solely on the ground and for the reason that she was of Chinese descent", "That an order had been issued by the Board of Trustees" ], "image_sha256": "6886d0e6542f7432d4c47e61670025da894356e0fce626b3d3dc295148057e74", "image_provenance": "Published crop of the acquired source document recorded in source_sha256. The crop operation predates this ledger and has no saved receipt of its own; image_sha256 pins the bytes this site publishes.", "image_kind": "archive_page" }, { "id": "CL-SRC-013", "title": "Chinese Barred From Rosedale Schools; Governor Brewer Attacked And Defended For Taking Up Case", "date": "1924-10-13", "date_label": "1924-10-13", "type": "White press account", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.)", "citation": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.), 13 October 1924, p. 2, editorial credited to the Bolivar County Democrat.", "url": "https://cplclarksdale.advantage-preservation.com/viewer/?i=f&d=01011920-12311935&e=chinese%20children&ord=e1&fn=clarksdale_daily_register_usa_mississippi_clarksdale_19241013_english_2&df=1&dt=8", "excerpt": "For several years quite a number of Chinese children have attended the white public schools in Rosedale. Beginning with two or three the number increased each year until during the session of 1922-23, there were about ten or twelve scattered through the various grades.", "interpretation": "Reports earlier attendance at Rosedale, but is not an enrollment record.", "limit": "The missing Attorney General opinion, an authenticated office copy, Rosedale School Board minutes, enrollment registers, or an independent colored-school record.", "image": null, "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "eb24794de19ccba6503d372429aca67b406817e3748fb1297494c6ff1b9f747e", "evidence_status": "Reported allegation", "evidence": [ "For several years quite a number of Chinese children have attended the white public schools in Rosedale.", "Beginning with two or three the number increased each year until during the session of 1922-23, there were about ten or twelve scattered through the various grades." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-ORDER-1924", "title": "The circuit court directs Martha Lum’s admission", "date": "1924-11-05", "date_label": "5 November 1924", "type": "Court order", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Bolivar Circuit Court", "citation": "NARA RG 267, Case File 31534, digital objects 010, 013, 015–017; transcript pp. 10–11, objects 016–017.", "url": "https://catalog.archives.gov/id/640875633", "excerpt": "It is by the court ordered that the demurrer be and the same is hereby overruled and the Clerk of the Circuit Court of the First Judicial District of Bolivar County, Mississippi, is hereby ordered and instructed to issue a writ of mandamus as prayed for in the petition [party list omitted], directing them to admit petitioner, Martha Lum, as a pupil in the Rosedale Consolidated High School as prayed for in the petition. Upon motion properly made, defendants are hereby granted an appeal to the Supreme Court of the State of Mississippi. Ordered and adjudged this the 5th day of November, 1924.", "interpretation": "The circuit court directed a writ admitting Martha Lum and allowed the defendants an appeal. The Mississippi Supreme Court later reversed.", "limit": "An order directing admission does not establish subsequent attendance. The displayed image is the second page of the two-page order; the excerpt spans both.", "image": "source-images/lum-admission-order-1924.jpg", "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "cd1531e38acea5e94476f566a19713667cdbe9bb54ee8a5db16badb5fcf1dff4", "evidence_status": "Judicial order", "evidence": [ "directing them to admit petitioner, Martha Lum, as a pupil in the Rosedale Consolidated High School as prayed for in the petition." ], "image_sha256": "c5b599371bf62afb8ffd0d9b478177cf744f7ad96056264712bb5bda7464b9da", "image_provenance": "Published crop of the acquired source document recorded in source_sha256. The crop operation predates this ledger and has no saved receipt of its own; image_sha256 pins the bytes this site publishes.", "image_kind": "archive_page" }, { "id": "CL-SRC-001", "title": "The Mississippi Supreme Court reverses the admission order", "date": "1925-05-11", "date_label": "1925-05-11", "type": "State decision", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Caselaw Access Project", "citation": "Rice v. Gong Lum, 139 Miss. 760, 104 So. 105 (1925)", "url": "https://static.case.law/miss/139/cases/0760-01.json", "excerpt": "The legislature is not compelled to provide separate schools for each of the colored races, and, unless and until it does provide such schools and provide for segregation of the other races, such races are entitled to have the benefit of the colored public schools.", "interpretation": "In 1925, the Mississippi Supreme Court placed the Chinese school litigants within the colored public-school system under its reading of state law.", "limit": "This establishes the court’s ruling, not an independent account of attendance or facilities.", "image": null, "review": "text_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "87739693a9c40bc64c22be97bd61f9ea02c09ea23503a104e86cad1cf87571b2", "evidence_status": "Judicial holding", "evidence": [ "The legislature is not compelled to provide separate schools for each of the colored races, and, unless and until it does provide such schools and provide for segregation of the other races, such races are entitled to have the benefit of the colored public schools." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-014", "title": "Tri-State Chinese Merchants Association attendance notice", "date": "1925-08-25", "date_label": "1925-08-25", "type": "Community network", "topic": "Associations", "publication": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.)", "citation": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.), 25 August 1925, p. 3, society notice.", "url": "https://cplclarksdale.advantage-preservation.com/viewer/?i=f&d=01011920-12311935&e=chinese%20merchants%20association&ord=e1&fn=clarksdale_daily_register_usa_mississippi_clarksdale_19250825_english_3&df=1&dt=1", "excerpt": "Mr and Mrs. S. W. Lee and Curtis Lee of Alligator left early this morning by motor car for Memphis to attend the Tri-State Chinese Merchants Association", "interpretation": "Names Chinese residents traveling from Alligator to a merchants' association event.", "limit": "Membership, office, identity with the United Chinese Merchants' Association, annual continuity, governance, dues, funding, legal sponsorship, or who convened the event.", "image": null, "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "7f79b86561c123d3038a94ab2f671b9eb62325c9d74361ddda333dc9b12bfc8f", "evidence_status": "Documented source statement", "evidence": [ "Mr and Mrs. S. W. Lee and Curtis Lee of Alligator left early this morning by motor car for Memphis to attend the Tri-State Chinese Merchants Association" ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-015", "title": "Supervisors Appropriate To Carry On Chinese School Case Litigation", "date": "1927-03-08", "date_label": "1927-03-08", "type": "Public spending", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.)", "citation": "Clarksdale Daily Register (Clarksdale, Miss.), 8 March 1927, p. 1.", "url": "https://cplclarksdale.advantage-preservation.com/viewer/?i=f&d=01011920-12311935&e=chinese%20school&ord=e1&fn=clarksdale_daily_register_usa_mississippi_clarksdale_19270308_english_1&df=1&dt=6", "excerpt": "the board decided to appropriate the sum of $2,000 towards the cause", "interpretation": "Records a $2,000 county appropriation for litigation without proving who received it.", "limit": "The county identity from this article alone, because the verified passage says only ‘this county.’", "image": null, "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_only", "source_sha256": "5c14aa8aef3f8b734583e508f366365f687b6155ad43b6533906c56d5904cf53", "evidence_status": "Documented source statement", "evidence": [ "the board decided to appropriate the sum of $2,000 towards the cause" ], "open_questions": [ "The county is not resolved: the checked passage says only 'this county'. Where the school it pays for stood is unknown from this record." ], "image_kind": null, "image_sha256": null }, { "id": "CL-SRC-009", "title": "J. K. Young letter on United Chinese Merchants' Association letterhead", "date": "1927-03-22", "date_label": "1927-03-22", "type": "Community correspondence", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "NARA RG 267", "citation": "NARA RG 267, Case File 31534, digital object 230", "url": "https://catalog.archives.gov/medialz/dc-metro/rg-267/301668/Batch0002/640875633/640875633_230.tif", "excerpt": "Request you send me two copies of the printed record in the case of Gong Lum et al. vs. Rice et al., No. 240 October Term, 1926. I am a Executive Secretary on above name Association.", "interpretation": "Places J. K. Young in direct contact with the Supreme Court clerk on association letterhead.", "limit": "Organization membership, geographic reach, institutional continuity, litigation funding, formal retention of counsel, or community-wide strategy.", "image": "source-images/jk-young-letter-1927.jpg", "review": "image_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "3893b3855c6310247ea9739990749e440d30cf838653bfd6fcd0476dac9a6958", "evidence_status": "Documented source statement", "evidence": [ "Request you send me two copies of the printed record", "I am a Executive Secretary on above name Association." ], "image_sha256": "ee590e76536fa16ea7c366451574cb13c066cb677466e57413064e75934e19ce", "image_provenance": "Published crop of the acquired source document recorded in source_sha256. The crop operation predates this ledger and has no saved receipt of its own; image_sha256 pins the bytes this site publishes.", "image_kind": "archive_page" }, { "id": "school-delta", "title": "A report on Delta school cases", "date": "1927-10-20", "date_label": "20 October 1927", "type": "Newspaper report", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "The Lexington Advertiser (Lexington, Mississippi)", "lccn": "sn84024271", "page": 14, "citation": "The Lexington Advertiser (Lexington, Mississippi), 20 October 1927, page 14, ‘Day by Day in Mississippi,’ by Helen Goodwin Yerger, opening paragraph. Library of Congress, Chronicling America.", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/resource/sn84024271/1927-10-20/ed-1/?sp=14", "excerpt": "two cases originating in the delta section of the state from the exclusion of Chinese children from white schools.", "transcription_note": "Bounded excerpt from the opening paragraph beneath ‘Day by Day in Mississippi,’ datelined JACKSON, Miss., Oct. 15. Line breaks joined. This is not a transcription of the whole column; later paragraphs address other subjects.", "interpretation": "This column explicitly locates the school cases in the Delta section of Mississippi. The place is in the report itself, rather than inferred from where the newspaper was printed.", "limit": "The excerpt records the newspaper’s account of two cases. It does not independently establish every legal assertion in the column, case identities, the outcome of either proceeding, or subsequent school attendance.", "image": "source-images/landscape/school-delta.jpg", "region": [ 0.217, 0.06, 0.38, 0.284 ], "image_size": [ 4000, 6252 ], "review": "single_ai_image_review_2026_09_12", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "rights_basis": "1927 US newspaper; saved item metadata states that newspapers published more than 95 years ago are in the public domain in their entirety.", "evidence_status": "Newspaper account of litigation", "evidence": [ "two cases originating in the delta section of the state" ], "source_sha256": "034106de524ff23116a8cdc642277cf7a4e9447c9e91f96b2a22029987d52e9b", "transcription_sha256": "4d02f748346fa0d496217fc5332a23d768dd475424a465eb7533fe145513e068", "metadata_sha256": "a2851dccb7f9cf5a6706d5d957ffc2875635e645481a2d89ac152189ef9582ab", "image_kind": "archive_page", "image_sha256": "034106de524ff23116a8cdc642277cf7a4e9447c9e91f96b2a22029987d52e9b" }, { "id": "CL-SRC-002", "title": "Gong Lum v. Rice", "date": "1927-11-21", "date_label": "1927-11-21", "type": "Federal decision", "topic": "Schooling", "publication": "Gong Lum v. Rice", "citation": "Gong Lum v. Rice, 275 U.S. 78 (1927)", "url": "https://www.loc.gov/item/usrep275078/", "excerpt": "where the issue is as between white pupils and the pupils of the yellow races", "interpretation": "Shows the Supreme Court extending segregation doctrine to Chinese pupils.", "limit": "Independent proof of the alleged board order, facilities, attendance after exclusion, or local implementation outside the pleaded record.", "image": "source-images/gong-lum-us-reports-1927.jpg", "review": "text_reviewed", "rights": "publish_text_and_image", "source_sha256": "8e96251be939ebf21d4db3ca3d54bce2dbfa3b9f8f05f861f7232263c915ed76", "evidence_status": "Documented source statement", "evidence": [ "where the issue is as between white pupils and the pupils of the yellow races" ], "image_sha256": "b6dcdd3f79071e8d907bb14a2dea76f3f993fececd950a81e9aab7ce18c3b8c1", "image_provenance": "Rendered from page 10 of the Library of Congress U.S. Reports PDF already acquired for this record. The page contains the cited passage and the Court's judgment.", "image_kind": "archive_page" } ] }